(Digital) Media and Materials for Learning

https://youtu.be/oh5fRGWhQzY

Introduction to Topic

​​One of the many things we need to take into consideration when creating inclusive learning environments is the media and material we use. It seems to be the case that a lot of the materials that are used in classrooms are based on verbal and/or visual texts, depending on the grade, and textbooks which mainly consist of visual (primary school) and verbal text (lower and upper secondary school). There are, however, a number of students who find it difficult to access, and learn, with these texts. In this chapter, we discuss why it is important to create and use diverse (digital) media and material and how we can do this in inclusive educational settings.

In the title of this chapter, digital is put in parenthesis. This means that we will write about both digital and analogue media and material. In large parts of the chapter, the focus will be on digital media because digital media have become part and parcel in educational contexts, not only since the COVID-19 crisis (Timotheou et.al. 2023). Even so, it is important to mention upfront that digital media, or media in general, is not a panacea, and is not a magic wand that solves all problems. Dropping a digital device into learners’ hands is not enough. On the contrary, there are many factors that can impact whether or not a student can fully benefit from a specific example of (digital) media. A wonderful app, a fascinating film clip or an impressive book that fails to meet learners’ needs or is not a good fit with the curriculum and learning goals, is of little help in the classroom.

So, how do we go about creating an inclusive learning environment in terms of digital media? How can we make sure that the media and material we bring into classrooms provide learning opportunities for all learners? This chapter aims to provide some answers to these questions by addressing specific topics. The chapter introduces the concept of a medium and the need to design inclusive media and materials. The chapter addresses key aspects of digital and analogue media and materials that include theoretical aspects such as Mayer’s Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning and the Universal Design for Learning, in addition to the use of Open Educational Resources (OER). In particular, the chapter provides practical considerations connected to the use of (digital) media and materials in classrooms and broader educational settings.

Key aspects

What is a medium?

Initially, we need to clarify what we mean by media and material. For the purpose of this section, we consider both to refer to the objects we apply to educational settings. There are several ways to define what a medium is. We can distinguish between a narrow and a broad understanding of media. For a narrow understanding, Schmidt and Strasser (2018, p. 212) suggest that ​:

Media can be defined as the means by which information is conveyed from one place to another. The most obvious characteristic of a medium is its technology, the mechanical and electronic aspects that determine its function and to some extent its shape and other physical features. These are the characteristics that are commonly used to classify a medium as a ‘television’, a ‘radio’, and so on (cf. Kozma, 1991, p. 2).

Added to this, we can include a time dimension as, in most cases, the media also allows access to the information they contain over time, through archives, which are easily accessible, either on the internet or in libraries? More broadly, the many forms of information available across time and space can be interpreted as media, even if they were not crafted by humans (as the word ‘technology’ implies). Marshall McLuhan is well known for taking a very broad perspective on what is encompassed under the label media. One of his examples is electric light. Electric light enables colours, but it “escapes attention as a communication medium just because it has no content” (McLuhan, 1964, p. 8). It is not until it “is used to spell out some brand name that it is noticed as a medium” (McLuhan, 1964, p. 9). Additionally, understanding something as a medium also depends on what one reads into the medium. A piece of driftwood, for example, can be a medium if you tell its story; whereas a cup of coffee can be used as an incentive to discuss sustainability. This indicates that using objects in specific contexts can turn these into media. Whether something is a medium depends on the negotiation between sender and receiver, and the intention which follows.

Another differentiation is often made in terms of the way a medium functions, or the means by which it is perceived. There is visual media (pictures and photos), audio media (podcasts and audiobooks) and audiovisual media (film and advertisements). Modes and codes can also be combined and result in multimodal/codal media such as picturebooks (see below). Another way of looking at media is their underlying technology: there is analog media such as books and newspapers, digital media such as ebooks, and interactive media such as apps or video games. Certainly, the human body is also a medium as body language carries meaning and conveys information. In other words, anything that communicates content and meaning can be viewed as a medium.

In educational settings, materials such as textbooks, worksheets, videos etc are considered a form of media. Teachers use these to teach content and develop competencies. In inclusive education settings, we can benefit from different kinds of media that address different means of perception. Objects are also included as students often learn through touch, such as playing with toy animals or by building blocks, for example.

There are specific characteristics of media that make them particularly beneficial for educational settings. Most media are interactive, multimodal and, in the case of digital media, often hypertextual. If these types or characteristics are not available, teachers can use other tools at their disposal to enhance their use. Interactivity means that media can be used in an interactive way. Interactivity refers to at least two dimensions. Firstly, learners can interact with one another based on a medium, e.g., a picture. In a foreign language classroom, for instance, each learner could have a different version of the same picture and discuss how their pictures differ. Secondly, learners can interact with the medium itself, e.g., when using a language learning app where they match correct words and pictures or translate phrases. The app then offers feedback and the learners continue their work.

Multimodality refers to the simultaneous integration of several codes and modes. Media, such as newspapers, picturebooks, feature film, and most apps, combine different modes and codes to convey meaning and information. In newspapers and picturebooks, there’s a combination of verbal and visual text while in feature films, it is visual and auditive text. In apps it is often a combination of verbal, visual, and auditive text plus the user’s interactivity with tasks. When using media in inclusive educational settings, it is essential to be aware of the advantages of the various modes and codes, and their combination, that provides (to be explained in further detail below).

Hypertextuality refers to the way in which media are linked to one another. This is apparent in digital verbal text such as lemmas in lexicon in which terms and concepts that explain one idea are directly linked to their own lemmas (see more details below). While this line of argument suggests that teachers and learners can benefit from characteristics which make the content more accessible, it is certainly the case that interactivity, multimodality and hypertextuality make the perception process more complex. One of the main benefits of digital media and material, however, is their adaptability.

One particular medium that teachers automatically bring into classrooms is their own body and (often) voice. In inclusive settings, it is worthwhile thinking about body language and the use of voice and pronunciation as well, because the intricacies of both can have an impact on successful learning for all. Teachers can benefit from using their bodies consciously, both as a means to distinguish between the use of body language that supports students in following instructions and explanations, and by using body language that distracts or makes students nervous. One means of bodily supporting learners would be, for example, to orient themselves in space in a way that makes lip-reading easier, or by using their bodies and voices to express empathy and affection. Thus, consciously working with the body has the potential to increase students’ awareness of their own bodies and how they work, thereby building students self-confidence,and personal identity and emphasising the diversity within the classroom.

Perceiving the body as a medium implies that teachers should not only be aware of their own body language but also be able to read the body language of their students. How do students signal that they are comfortable or uncomfortable? Are they lazily chilling in their seats or highly relaxed and able to pay particular attention to what is being presented? Certainly, activities that require movements, e.g., in-between activities or where students stand up and shake their arms and legs, can play a key role in maintaining engagement in the classroom. In inclusive settings we need to be aware that not all students may be able to participate in such activities. Anything that concerns embodiment needs to be sensitively considered, especially so in inclusive classrooms. There are common ways in which the body can be designed to work for different learners including drama activities, physical movement or methods such as marketplace and mingling around. This might also involve metaphorical movement in virtual spaces using avatars or in 3D (Morganti & Riva, 2006).^[1]

The need to design inclusive media and material

When teaching, it is important to address, and include, everyone, and to ensure everyone benefits from the learning experience. This is especially relevant in inclusive settings where learners with different needs develop skills and competences at a different rate. When using media and material, it is paramount to do so in such a way that invites all learners to learn. For example, the delivery and design of media and material is important, and this is particularly the case for analogue and digital media and material alike. Digital media and material can be challenging for some students as a colourful design, fast pace, or means of accessibility could be overwhelming or distracting for them. Despite this, there are numerous benefits of using digital media such as:

• Developing skills and additional competencies that would not be possible without the technology, making details observable through slow-motion or zooming-in to images;
• Ensuring participation in classroom activities and beyond, e.g., participating in lessons remotely and online;
• Supporting students in solving tasks independent from teacher support, e.g., by conducting their own research.

Developing skills and competencies is necessary for all learners, regardless of their socio-cultural, economic and social background.. All students must acquire basic skills and knowledge that enable them to assess, produce, present, and exchange information, as well as the ability to choose the appropriate technologies to tackle real-life problems.

As indicated above, digital media and material offers particular advantages to create teaching and learning scenarios for all. Teachers and learners can, for example, benefit from text-to-speech software and visual organisers. We can adapt the structure of the material and media, and also the content. Through the online world, information and material can immediately be accessed and included in teaching. Digital media can thus support differentiation and, as a result, inclusion.

Beyond media and material, the use of language also makes teaching and learning accessible to all students. We can ensure that learning materials are provided across different levels, and also supplement written texts with audio recordings.

There are a number of benefits for using digital media in the context of inclusion:

1. As a tool for learning (e.g., learning maths);
2. As a way to develop digitalisation-related competencies (functional and personal/critical);
3. To allow students to develop life skills needed in a society predominately shaped by the digital transformation.

We can create and design inclusive media and material, or increase access to given media and material by digitising it. Digitisation is the act of translating information into machine-readable formats. With the increasing digitisation of data, a process of digital transformation begins. Digital transformation does not refer merely to the ubiquitousness of digital devices, but to the changes caused by large amounts of data being easily searchable and digitally processable. For example, scanning an individual book is a form of digitisation. A book that was scanned can be uploaded and downloaded, shared and searched. The predominance of scanned books and digital repositories of research articles, (or electronic texts) has an additional effect, in changing the way we research . For instance, instead of searching in card catalogues or printed bibliographies, we can use search engines like Google Scholar to find information. While this is beneficial in one respect (by identifying side references to obscure topics) it also has drawbacks in that it can be difficult to assess the quality of a publication.

Many studies have analysed the potential of digital media for students with special educational needs (Florian, 2004; Joimur, 2018; Tohara, 2021). These highlight how digital media can support students not only in studying, but in acquiring life skills (Bryant et al., 2020). Digital media, therefore, becomes not only an information tool but also an educational tool. A teacher who wants to respond to everyone’s needs (Sibilio & Aiello, 2015) faces the challenge in designing activities that meet the needs of each individual student, and respecting their personal way of learning. Where students encounter difficulties, their teachers can resort to different resources to support them. When we think of analogue media, these can be adapted to different needs by, for example, changing the size of letters and images or the colours in a verbal text to make it easier to identify details, or adding verbal explanations to what can be seen in an image.

The blend of modern technology with the more traditional means of learning, offers even more options. For example, an image can be viewed on the Interactive Multimedia Whiteboard to allow greater magnification. Using software to work with maps (e.g., in Geography), in addition to textbooks, adapts the learning environment for students who are more motivated when using technology, allowing them to view images in more detail compared to the classic textbook. In fact, it is often the case that children who have little interest in studying exclusively from books, learn better using a computer whilst also sustaining their attention span. Providing students with choices supports their autonomy^[2], and creates ownership and self-reliance.

(DigitaI) Media and Material in Inclusive Settings: Theoretical Foundations

There are various theories one may use to build a foundation for critically reflecting on applying (digital) media and material in inclusive settings. For the content listed here, we believe Mayer’s Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning and the approach of Universal Design for learning are fundamental when designing digital or non-digital material for learning.

Mayer’s cognitive theory of multimedia learning

In the first instance, we will discuss Mayer’s Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning (Mayer, 2021). It assumes that learners actively construct their understanding from the material presented to them. This theory builds on research in deciding how best to support learners through design choices related to choosing what to include and how to arrange it. Mayer ascertains that our working memory is always limited. An individual’s working memory capacity differs from person to person, but it will never be unlimited. The process of learning will place demands on the working memory. Everything that a person can learn has a germane load – in other words, is it relevant for the task at hand . However, the way in which this input is presented can increase the total cognitive load. By presenting good learning designs, we can keep the extraneous load low.

So, what is good design? A long, uninterrupted text, or a truly intimidating wall of text? Perhaps a video filled with images and animation and effects, with narration and music and everything else under the rainbow? According to Mayer’s Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning, both are not the ideal. Mayer’s theory assumes that the processing of input has to go through different channels. Each of these channels has a limited capacity. In designing material, therefore we do not want to overburden either of these channels. As there are different channels available, we can use multimedia to transport some information through one of the channels, and other information through the other channels.

What are these channels? There are two approaches which the theory draws on; the verbal vs. the non-verbal channel, and the visual vs. the auditory channel. The verbal channel deals with language. It can be spoken or written or signed.f it is spoken language, it is processed by the verbal channel. The non-verbal channel deals with everything else. So, if there is a video that makes use of sign language and written text, e.g., subtitles, both would have to be processed by the verbal channel. However, if there is audio text and a drawing, only the audio text would be processed by the verbal channel and the drawing by the non-verbal channel. This means, instead of sending all your metaphorical boats down a single river and clogging it up, you are sending some boats down one river, some boats down another river, and everything can travel smoothly. Another approach involves the distinction between visual and auditory channels. If you have written text and animation, both will tax the visual channel. If you have spoken text and the animation, it will draw on both systems and may avoid overtaxing any one of these channels. Hence, teachers may also address corresponding channels to allow learners to follow instructions or content. They could use meaningful hand signs while explaining an issue, may show pictures while telling a story, or develop sketchnotes while referring to grammar phenomena.

From these, and more, assumptions, certain principles have been developed that can guide your design of teaching material. One of which is the coherence principle, which encourages us to only include what is needed, and leave out what is not needed. Extra detail that sounds interesting but is not necessary – for instance, music that does not contribute to the essence of the material can be left out in order to reduce the cognitive load. Another principle that is important here is the temporal contiguity principle. If you have a picture and a narration that explains the picture, present them at the same time. For example, if you designed a PowerPoint slide deck: present the picture and the corresponding narration on one slide.

Table 1: Design Principles to Minimise Extraneous Cognitive Load in Multimedia Learning

Table based on Mayer (2001, p. 69)

Mayer’s Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning is useful for designing material that works for students with different working memory capacities. Nevertheless, there are some caveats. First, the idea of using multiple channels can fall flat if some students simply cannot use one of these channels. It is often better to risk overtaxing one channel, than depending on a channel that is not available to your learners. A deaf student might profit more from written text or a sign language video, even if this text or video, in combination with a graphic or animation, might risk overtaxing the visual channel. We can still support them by presenting information in appropriately sized chunks, allowing them to pause the input, or to rewatch parts of it. Furthermore, when you are exploring language learning, all bets are off. When students are still acquiring a language – be it in the foreign language classroom, or in other settings –  being able to hear and read the same words simultaneously can be a major advantage. Listening comprehension improves when students can read while listening. This is very noticeable, for example, when watching target language videos with subtitles. Košak-Babuder and colleagues (2019) investigated language learners with dyslexia and found that students benefited even more from the combination of spoken and written language.

So, what do you do? Should you follow Mayer’s Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning or not? It is certainly a useful starting point, especially as these principles can guide you in designing material with an appropriate cognitive load and that avoids unnecessary, and potentially harmful, bells and whistles. On the other hand, and for accessibility reasons, you can include alternative methods for improving the presentation of information for students with difficulties. Ideally, these can be concealed by students who do not need them i.e., subtitles that can be switched on or off.

In this section, we have only discussed the parts of Mayer’s theory that look at the two channels and aim to minimise extraneous processing. The theory goes much deeper, though. To offer you a concise summary of further principles, we present these in the following table.

Table 2: Design Techniques to Manage Essential and Foster Generative Processing in Multimedia Learning

 Table based on Mayer (2001, p. 69)

Universal Design for Learning (UDL)

Another theory is Universal Design for Learning (UDL). UDL is described as “a framework to guide the design of learning environments that are accessible and challenging for all“ (CAST UDL Guidelines). UDL has developed a table with different principles, each containing guidelines, with accompanying checkpoints. This table is a wonderful tool for planning and reflecting on your teaching. Here, we will look only at a small part of it, i.e., the principle of representation. (The full table, with hyperlinked explanations, can be accessed here: CAST UDL Guidelines).

Representation refers to the means at teachers’ and students’ disposal to learn content and information. UDL suggests we provide multiple means of representation. On the one hand, we should design options for perception and ensure that information is presented which includes students who are hard of hearing, blind or visually impaired. We should also ensure that students can customise the display of information. Do subtitles help you? Then switch them on. Do they take your attention away from the film? Switch them off. Each learner can choose for themselves what works best for them and how to make the content accessible.

Designing options for language and symbols understands that perception alone is not enough. If you use many complex technical terms, a simple process description might be incomprehensible to some of your learners. We need to clarify how the vocabulary, symbols, and language structures that we use are organised. When we have learners who speak more than one language, we can cultivate understanding across languages and dialects to support their learning. We can also help students by using multiple media to illustrate the same ideas.

Finally, just understanding a small piece of new information is not enough. Design options for building knowledge concerns how this information is processed. We can connect prior knowledge to new learning, or provide it to learners. Without that background knowledge, the new ideas might be meaningless or decontextualized. Do not overwhelm students with details but rather highlight patterns, big ideas, and relationships. For instance, guide students in how to process information and to use strategies such as visualisation and support them in maximising transfer and generalisation by giving them different opportunities to revisit ideas and apply them to different problems.

The idea is not to create special ways of presenting information that perfectly meets the needs of a single student (i.e., individualisation), but rather to design our teaching in a way that includes multiple flexible options, so that students can use include options that fit their needs and use the support that helps them in that specific lesson.

Using Open Educational Resources (OER) to address students’ needs

The concept of OER

Looking at UNESCO’s definition, Open Educational Resources (OER) can be defined as:

Learning, teaching and research materials in any format and medium that reside in the public domain or are under copyright that have been released under an open license, that permit no-cost access, re-use, re-purpose, adaptation and redistribution by others […] (UNESCO, 2019, p. 5).

This means that due to their open licence teachers and learners worldwide can flexibly and legally use OER. The material for the secondary level schools from the Norwegian OER platform ndla.no (NDLA), for example, can be translated and distributed in other countries (Müller, 2019).

Interestingly, UNESCO explicitly highlights the potential of free educational materials for inclusive educational processes:

Information and communications technology (ICT) provide great potential for effective, equitable and inclusive access to OER and their use, adaptation and redistribution. They can open possibilities for OER to be accessible anytime and anywhere for everyone, including individuals with disabilities and individuals coming from marginalized or disadvantaged groups. They can help meet the needs of individual learners and effectively promote gender equality and incentivize innovative pedagogical, didactical and methodological approaches (UNESCO, 2019 p. 5).

Regarding the question of how OER might be used, we can turn to David Wiley’s 5r’s (2014) which outlines the advantages of using? OER:

• Retain – make, own, and control a copy of the resource (e.g., download and keep your own copy);
• Revise – edit, adapt, and modify your copy of the resource (e.g., translate into another language);
• Remix – combine your original or revised copy of the resource with other existing material to create something new (e.g., make a mashup);
• Reuse – use your original, revised, or remixed copy of the resource publicly (e.g., on a website, in a presentation, in a class);
• Redistribute – share copies of your original, revised, or remixed copy of the resource with others (e.g., post a copy online or give one to a friend).

In this respect, OER is not inclusive by design, but instead offers numerous potential to create more inclusive learning arrangements. The following sections show how OER can be made inclusive and its benefits for inclusive learning.

The benefits of inclusive OER for teaching in diverse learning groups

School contexts are characterised to a large extent by local circumstances such as curricula and languages, and yet overlap considerably in terms of content. Numerous OER initiatives therefore tend to operate at a national level (such as NDLA.no in Norway, Mundo.Schule in Germany). Cross-national search engines for OER, such as OERSI, are still in their infancy  and do not yet take into account the requirements of inclusive education.

In inclusive education, the development and adaptation of materials to the needs of pupils has a long tradition. However, due to copyright issues, teachers usually keep their materials to themselves, with the result that they must start from the beginning each time. With OER, teachers can build on the materials developed by others, and save a lot of time. Beyond the time issue, there are further reasons why OER  should be used and self-created materials should be shared under a free licence.

One aspect is the understanding that there is no “one material to suit all” and there is no one material that is perfectly accessible to all pupils. The particular learning requirements at different levels means that the content must be constantly adapted either for a class or individual students. Therefore, publishing material as OER, under free licences and as free formats, allows other teachers and educators to adapt the material to their learners’ specific needs and to their technological setup.

The new AI developments make it possible to adapt materials at an even faster rate and according to the needs of the learning group. For example, ChatGPT as a generative language model can generate texts in different language levels (e.g. also in easy/simple language). The use of generative AI for text simplification/differentiation can also help with materials that are under Creative Commons license (especially cc-0) and do not prohibit editing with AI due to copyright.

As will be further discussed below, digital formats also allow us to address the question of representation more easily. Unlike traditional textbooks, digital space is not subject to any significant space restrictions. This “more of space” in digital space can be used to include a “more diverse perspectives” (e.g., by involving people with different backgrounds in the development of content and how this content is represented). Because digital space offers this low threshold for the representation of diversity, OER should take the opportunity and benefit from it in both the production and design of material.

Another aspect that contributes to increased accessibility is the free usability of OER. Learners and teachers all over the world can use materials without requesting permission and without paying licence fees. This contributes to a democratisation of educational processes, as access to the material does not depend on the financial resources of the country, school, teacher, parents, or learners.

Many students in inclusive schools benefit from a variety of representations. This can be achieved by using images, videos, audios or real life objects. Obtaining appropriate and illustrative material is often a particular challenge for teachers. As videos and graphic material are even more complex and expensive to develop, it is more worthwhile to share illustrative content with others. With the proliferation of smartphones, laptops and digital cameras, teachers have access to digital content production tools. In this case, production quality is not necessarily the first priority. Appealing content, a vivid presentation and a reference to the reality of the students’ lives can make a video attractive for students (Müller, 2019, p. 51).

Creating (more) inclusive OER

While dealing with licences is a rather dry topic for teachers, it is necessary to understand the restrictions and possibilities associated with a licence or a material. There is a wide range of Creative Commons licences available to inform end users about the legal rights they have for a resource.

The modular system makes it possible to define exactly how materials may be used, for example:

• Attribution (cc-by): you are obliged to mention the name of the author, in the form he/she wishes;
• No commercial use (nc): you may only use the content in non-commercial contexts;
• No derivative works (nd): you may not create derivative works of the material;
• Using the same licence (share alike- sa): you may only distribute the material under the same licence.

Due to their extensive openness, two licence models are particularly suitable for schools: the cc-by licence and the cc-0 licence. To ensure maximum adaptability, teachers can make their materials as open as possible, so others can build on them without issues. For example, using a cc-0-licence (which creates no requirements) instead of cc-by (which requires the name and other information), maybe a better option?.

To create materials that are meaningfully editable, the ALMS-Framework (Hilton et.al., 2010) may be useful:

• Access to Editing Tools: use formats that do not require expensive specialised software for editing (instead of PDF use HTML, OpenOffice formats);
• Level of Expertise Required: use simple tools that are widely available and do not require 100 hours of training;
• Meaningfully Editable: avoid scanned text in protected PDFs and use editable format;
• Self-Sourced: hand over source files so that editing is possible and not just closed final products.

Another dimension of accessibility is to ensure that materials are easy to find. Using platforms that are more broadly used, for example, like YouTube, Spotify, Apple or Google Podcasts or (country) specific OER repositories, and to simultaneously provide them through portals that offer secure data privacy is preferable over country specific Learning Management Systems for example.

Inclusive OER may provide more clarity by adding additional channels with the same information, i.e., to provide text and audio, images, video (cf. Mayer’s theory above). This includes offering descriptive alt texts to visuals and spoken text as well as adding alternative texts to graphics. To create more inclusive OER, NDLA aims to keep the end users in mind, for example by using fictitious descriptions of potential students (in Design Thinking terms so-called personas), which target the interests and needs of a diverse group of learners (Müller, 2021). For the educational context, it is important to keep in mind both the needs of the learners as well as those of the gatekeepers (teachers, kindergarten teachers), in deciding which materials should be used in the school/kindergarten. Therefore, openness to pedagogical approaches, is a key factor for decisions on the use of OER in educational institutions.

A German example of inclusive OER is the website: Wort.Schule (https://wort.schule/), a free OER dictionary for learners which also provides cc-0 graphics that can be used for various other purposes without the need for attribution. The images aim to reflect a diverse group of people and are based on feedback from educators and learners. The images also allow learners from different backgrounds to identify with the material and at the same time sensitise all learners to the range of diversity. Furthermore the images make the platform more accessible for students who may benefit from a visual representation of words. As the source code and images are under a free licence, other countries can build on the material and do not have to develop it from scratch.

Common concerns of OER novices

In connection with publishing one’s own materials as OER, some practitioners frequently express concerns.

“What if someone sells the material?”

If the material is published under a free licence (cc-by, cc-0), it is theoretically possible to sell it. To minimise this risk, you can include the website where the material can be found in the attribution. Since attribution is obligatory, all users are informed that the material is available free of charge. A positive aspect of commercial distribution is that buyers can use the material and thus implement your ideas as a guide to? good teaching. Offering the material for free can increase its use, whereas the use of restrictive licences (e.g., non-commercial) can cause uncertainties (e.g., regarding cooperation with printing companies, use in private schools) making it’s use less likely.

“I don’t want colleagues to shine with the material I have created!”

There may be instances where colleagues copy the information and and take advantage of others’ creativity. Changing your perspective on this may help: imagine the students who will benefit from the material you created, and not just those in your own classroom. Furthermore, if colleagues choose your material to teach, they have clearly acknowledged, and recognised, your work?!

“Well, but this material is not good enough!”

This could indeed be the case, but also implies the potential for collaborative development inherent in the concept of OER. OER is not about publishing the perfect material, but instead is about allowing others to use good material, and develop it further. If the development of OER is integrated into the context of projects or institutions, extended quality assurance mechanisms can also be implemented. NDLA distinguishes between subject quality, production quality, technical quality, quality from the user perspective and pedagogical quality (Müller, 2019, p. 49). The didactic quality of the material is the responsibility of the creators. For the production quality, however, it makes sense to have external support for graphics, video editing, etc. The technical quality depends in part on the form of distribution. The quality from the user’s point of view requires feedback from pupils and teachers, which can then form the basis for further development. Pedagogical quality relates on the one hand to fundamental pedagogical issues, such as treating learners with respect and appreciation, but also to the openness to different pedagogical approaches, which can ensure that the material can be used in a variety of contexts.

Creating a culture of sharing

There are different pathways to accessing more materials that include the right to adapt to the needs of students and to redistribute within and beyond the community of practice. These include the development of materials on behalf of governmental platforms (e.g., by specifically paid teachers and/or external companies), but also the development of materials by teachers.

The core concern is to build on the work and effort that teachers bring to the development of materials and to motivate them to share their materials. The aim is to avoid reinventing the wheel and to have access to, and adapt, existing ideas and materials. Different approaches exist that can motivate and support teachers with publishing materials. One approach is through the collaborative development of materials in groups. These groups can be formed within a school or through teams of motivated teachers from schools with similar starting points.

Practical Considerations

This section of the chapter is about teaching with (digital) media in inclusive settings. We mentioned it at the beginning of this chapter, but as it is important, so it is worth emphasising. Digital media, or media in general, must be implemented in teaching scenarios in a meaningful way, so that using the media does not become a means in itself, but rather needs to be based on didactically and methodologically sound decisions that allow all learners to benefit from their use.

With this in mind we offer a way forward to put using digital and media in general in inclusive classrooms to practise. We address the digital divide, the needs of learners, the textbook as a specific case in point for widespread media, scaffolding through media, accessibility of media, parents and the potential and limitations of media in inclusive settings as a conclusion.

The digital divide

The “digital divide” (also known as the digital gap) is a metaphor that was used to describe the growing gap between the technological “haves” and the “have nots”, both within a single country or community, but also between different countries and communities that differ in technological access. In many countries today, this digital gap has been closed in some way. Access to digital devices is widespread. In Germany, for example, if you compare the JIM study from 2020 with the JIM study of 1998, the increases in access to digital devices and the internet are astonishing. While in 1998, there were significant numbers of teenagers who *never* accessed the internet, today this number is exceedingly small (Medienpädagogischer Forschungsverbund Südwest 1998; 2020).

At the same time, there are differences in quality and reliability of devices and infrastructure access, for example, Kevin might have a hand-me-down smartphone with a cracked screen and limited battery life, while Celine might have the newest laptop with lots of useful software. Kevin might be able to access the internet through a limited data plan, or through public WiFIat the library, while Celine might have reliable WiFi at home, as well as a working printer, in case the teacher wants the homework on paper. Also, while the concept of the “digital native” (Prensky, 2001) initially suggested that by just being born in the right generation (originally: 1980 or later), an individual would develop a more intuitive grasp of digital technology, whereas in fact, young people today differ very much in their Information and Communication Technology (ICT) skills. Let us imagine two students, Justus and Charlotte. Both use YouTube. Justus watches music videos on YouTube. Charlotte has her own channel, which she uses to upload “shopping haul” videos and reviews of cosmetics, advent calendars, and snack food. Both might say that they spend their free time on YouTube, but their skill sets will be very different. The International Computer and Information Literacy Study(ICILS) (Fraillon et al., 2018) looked at the ICT skills of teenagers and found that, a high number of teenagers struggle with basic tasks, such as deciding where to put a header, or how to crop an image, while there other students who are highly computer literate? And demonstrate high levels of ICT skills.

In summary, the goal is getting to know your learners really well and, based on this knowledge, providing them with access to appropriate media and materials and a path to acquiring the skills needed to critically use, navigate, and possibly transform the media and materials in order that meaningful learning can be achieved.

The learners and their media needs

When designing materials for learners, we need to pay attention to who they are as learners. This includes understanding the languages they speak, their competencies, their interests, and their way of accessing and processing information. Let us unpack this. The learners, their needs and learning objectives should form the basis of incorporating media and materials. Schools and especially teachers should carefully preselect the appropriate technology and plan its implementation so that the current learning and teaching is enhanced in a way that benefits all of the learners. It should simultaneously foster the necessary skills that develop critical thinkers in this age where the digital world is constantly evolving. Even if students are equipped with skills that enable them to explore the (digital) media environment in such a way that strengthens their engagement in the task and ultimately their learning, we need to make sure that the teaching objectives take centre stage. Ultimately, the goal is that the use of multimedia should allow learners to act with as much autonomy as their competencies will allow, so as to support their development into critical thinkers.

Despite the constant emphasis on autonomy and individualisation in this section, a word of caution is necessary. We need to ensure that we do not only simply address students’ needs and adapt learning to what they are comfortable with. This may miss the opportunity of them learning something new, of challenging them to move beyond their comfort zones and take risks. Learner autonomy is always to be encouraged? However, humans are social beings, and learning is a social process. Quoting Barbara Schmenk, we do not want to produce learners who, similar to autonomous cars, operate according to a pre-coded plan and only do what is within their programming (Schmenk, 2018, pp. 18-19).

In addition, digital competencies play an important role. As stated earlier, owning a fancy laptop or tablet does not mean that one knows how to use it to its fullest potential. Before requiring specific outputs from learners, teachers need to determine how effective and efficient learners are with regard to the use of their devices. Depending on the experiences of learners, the skills required for different tasks may vary across the classroom. As is true for any other teaching scenario, and if needed, additional support may be warranted for individual learners.

Inclusive representation in media and materials

One of the most important media types in the classroom today is the textbook and this deserves some extra attention as it impacts not only on what teachers do in classrooms, but also the learning gained from looking at textbooks, may also apply to other kinds of media used in education. Some authors have even argued that the textbook has more impact on day-to-day teaching than the official curriculum (Schmelter, 2011; Vielau, 2005). As the textbook is so important, it is essential that teachers have the skills to read textbooks critically, so they can decide what to use or not use, and where they need to add supplementary material. This is especially paramount in inclusive settings. As current research has shown, there are major deficits in textbooks regarding the visual representation of diversity (Alter & Köfler, 2021; Sunderland, 2019). In many textbooks, LGBTQIA+ characters are not appropriately represented (Bittner, 2011; Moore, 2020). Similarly, there are very few characters with visible disabilities, and even fewer with invisible disabilities (Alter, König & Merse, 2021). Even if they are visually represented, very often they lack agency and voice, and are mostly depicted as illustrations and decorations (Alter & Köfler, 2021; Alter, König & Merse, 2021) or in stereotypical contexts (Alter, 2021). This also applies the methods and social settings which these textbooks prescribe. Unfortunately, other media are also at fault here? .

Additionally, the rise of AI-generated content in educational materials has introduced new concerns regarding diversity. Research has shown that AI models, such as text-to-image generation models, often amplify stereotypes, even when explicitly countered in the prompts. Studies have demonstrated that common AI-generated images often perpetuate stereotypical racial, gender, and social roles, by primarily associating certain professions or attributes (like software developers) with white males, or by depicting poverty through darker skin tones (Bianchi et al., 2023). This creates a challenge for inclusivity in educational content, as AI-generated images may inadvertently reinforce societal biases, making it critical for educators to assess not only traditional media but also AI-generated materials to ensure they represent diverse and equitable perspectives (Bianchi et al., 2023).

Why is this important? Let us take disability as an example of diversity. Jensen, Herrebrøden and Andreassen (2021) contend that there are five arguments why representation of disability in textbooks – and, by extension, in other media – is important:

• “Pupils must be able to recognise themselves in their learning materials”;
• Representation “might positively influence their self-image and motivation”;
• Representation can “influence peer attitudes”;
• Representation can “contribute to both understanding and breaking down prejudices;
• Representation can “diminish the stigmatisation of people with disabilities” (Jensen, Herrebrøden & Andreassen, 2021).

It can also be argued that representation can help to reduce epistemic injustice. As Legault, Bourdon and Poirier (2020) explain in the context of a paper on marginalisation of neurodivergent people:

Epistemic injustices are situations where persons who do not belong to a dominant social group are denied (or simply not offered) access to or participation in the shared epistemic resources. The various concepts and knowledge base available do not represent their lived experience (hermeneutic injustice), and their testimony is given less weight to shape the collective epistemic resources (testimonial injustice). (Legault, Bourdon & Poirier, 2021, p. 12854).

To state this more simply: When people do not have full and equal access to the discourses in and beyond the classroom, their experiences are not recognized, and others cannot learn from their experiences. High-quality representation of different perspectives can change this.

Representation can further contribute to what Kumashiro calls “Education about the Other” (Kumashiro, 2000, pp. 31-35), which focuses on teaching students about the experiences and needs of marginalised individuals, while also potentially contributing to an “Education for the Other”, where an “affirming space where Otherness […] is embraced, where ‘normalcy’ […] is not presumed, where students will have an audience for their Othered voice(s), and where the Other will have role models” (Kumashiro, 2000, p. 28).

What can we do to improve representation?

In general, it is much easier for teachers to manipulate what the textbooks offer because they can simply tweak partner tasks by instructing their learners to “work alone, with a partner, or in a small group”. This way, students with different needs and preferences can focus on the task at hand in the manner that they prefer. This is particularly important in settings in which the textbook is not accessible to all learners so that the teacher has to adjust it to ensure full inclusion. If needs be, the font should be able to be enlarged either digitally or through the use of assistive technology. For other learners, having books available in audio format is important for their participation in the classroom learning activities (cf. section 5.2).

In his book on representation in language teaching, Seburn suggests two approaches that teachers can use to increase representation: the utilisation approach and the disruptive approach. The utilisation approach is as follows:

One approach to creating more representation is to do so without highlighting the ‘specialness’ (or ‘strangeness’ rather) of individuals from marginalised groups and to spread their narratives alongside all others with regular frequency. When doing so through visuals, audio, and text, we increase exposure to a variety of members from these groups and a variety of voices. Here, we aim for everyone’s identity to be ‘usual’ within a society. More clearly, the aim with this is not to highlight the specific characteristics of individuals within these groups as part of the target language lesson itself. Instead, the focus is on the linguistic aspects of the materials and on the lexical or grammatical situation (Seburn, 2021, p. 110).

This approach is fairly easy to implement, also in other subjects: Go through your materials and see whether, for example, the people in your worksheets have different body types and skin colours, the speakers in your videos speak different varieties of the language, that people of different genders are visible and voiced throughout, and that all kinds of families and relationships appear in the stories you read. Even so, this approach carries with it the risk of ignoring the actual experiences of marginalised groups and making them appear indistinguishable from the experiences of non-marginalised groups.

This is not the case with the disruptive approach, which highlights “particular characteristics and experiences of marginalised individuals to help learners make connections to themselves, question things we may take for granted, and suggest improvements to some of these things” (Seburn, 2021, p. 117). Instead of just having pictures of both straight and queer couples in a worksheet on “consent” (as you would with the utilisation approach), for example, you actually dig deep into how marginalisation happens, and what can be done to counter it.

One way to increase representation is to include stories about communities written by people from within these communities. These are a few recommendations to get you started:

The sheer wealth of different kinds of media and material and the affordances this provides to create beneficial teaching and learning scenarios for all learners can be a huge advantage for teachers, but also a challenge. While they have media and material at their disposal with which they can address all learners, they need to make sure that they still have clear and transparent objectives in mind and do not implement media and material for their own sake. As we said earlier, if an app is not systematically contextualised in educational settings, we may entertain students but also miss the chance to actually foster the competencies we had in mind. Of course, we can play around with BeeBots and amuse ourselves with the way in which they run around the classroom, but even in such playful learning scenarios we should focus on meaningful play and playful learning. Thus, BeeBots can lead to combining coding competencies with giving directions in different languages or understanding the geographic coordinate system.

Using media to scaffold learning

Scaffolding refers to providing systematic support for learners that help them solve tasks (Wood, Bruner & Ross, 1976). As a metaphor, it implies that in order to solve a task, learners may need assistance with specific steps in solving a task independently. When teachers recognise that students have difficulty continuing with a task, they may prompt them with hints and advice on how to continue. Once the learners are on track again, the teacher can move away and let them continue by themselves. “Scaffolding is actually a bridge used to build upon what students already know to arrive at something they do not know. If scaffolding is properly administered, it will act as an enabler” (Benson, 1997, p. 28).

As such, the concept can be linked to Vygotsky’s idea of the Zone of Proximal Development (1930). In a nutshell, it describes the distance between what students can do independently to what they cannot do yet. Within these zones, others can provide support so that learners can navigate this zone and develop competencies to reach a higher level from which they can explore the next stage. Scaffolding can be pre-planned or spontaneous. Pre-planned scaffolding refers to creating help sheets for learners in advance. Here, the teacher anticipates where they may have difficulties solving a task and thinks about ways to support them, for example by offering further content, advising them where to find information themselves, or giving hints on certain methods that can be helpful. This often appears in the contexts of free teaching and learning, such as in projects or working at stations. Spontaneous scaffolding is provided when a teacher recognizes that students get stuck while working on a task. It can also be provided by other learners. Scaffolding does not provide answers but helps learners through their zone of proximal development, so basically it guides them from the things they can do to the things they cannot yet do.

There are many tools teachers can use for scaffolding. One commercially available product is “qr Lernhilfen” (https://qr-lernhilfen.de/). It allows teachers to include QR codes on teaching material such as printed worksheets and allows students to individually scan and use these. Following these codes, students can find levelled or graduated support. A student who needs just a little bit of help can read the first hint, and students who need more help can open additional hints. As the help is available directly on the material itself, students do not need to wait for the teacher’s feedback when they just need a quick reminder of a mathematical formula or a grammar construction, for example. The teacher, in turn, has more time to carefully observe student progress and to help students who need in-person support.

Adaptivity is a special case of scaffolding. Adaptivity means that a program or app responds to the current level of understanding demonstrated by a learner. The technology is able to track learners’ progress and to manipulate the content it offers. For example, adaptive vocabulary learning means that the program spends less time on things the learner has already mastered, and more time on things the learner is still working on. Hypertextuality is another example of adapting texts to make them more accessible. In these texts, specific content is connected to further content. For example, a text that mentions Mozart’s opera Mitridate, re di Ponto (1770), directly links this to an audio file that learners can individually access if they like to listen to it, a text on Caspar David Friedrich’s paintings is linked to the paintings to see. If the text is enriched with links and connections to other hypertexts, the students will have the opportunity to navigate a plurality of different means to learn and develop a complex understanding of content. A good example for this would be digital glosses, which can support learners reading texts, but may also increase the cognitive load (for meta-analyses with a focus on language learning, see Abraham, 2008; Yun, 2011). In order for this to be practical, we need multimedia and hybrid settings to actually provide pragmatic access to technology in the first place. Certainly, these need to be connected to clear tasks and instructions because hybridity can also be distracting and students may get lost in the wealth of information they find.

As we indicated before, teachers’ competencies are central here as well. Independent of whether the material they use is analog or digital, they need to be able to guide students on their path to achieving the teaching and learning objectives they follow. No technology can substitute a sound methodology and beneficial planning and replace teaching. Certainly, these competencies need to match inclusive classrooms which are often considered to be very complex.

Accessibility of media and materials

As described above, a universal design in media is helpful for learners not only with different dis/abilities but also people of different ages, social and cultural backgrounds, different language skills and digital competencies or using different devices. It is therefore less about creating accessibility for individual groups than about a holistic approach that benefits all users. Nevertheless, adaptations for individual learners may be necessary.

One means would be to put content into easy or simplified language, or in general to adapt the language that we use so that it is easy to understand. Certainly, this is a whole science in itself, but elements such as short sentences or avoiding collections of sub-clauses can already make a difference to some learners. Some students may also find the material more accessible when key terms are given in other languages (especially their first language).

Following standards such as the Web Content Accessibility Guidelines is essential for the creation of digital materials. These include a clear structuring through headings, sufficient contrasts, sensibly labelled links (in other words: actual descriptions of where a link leads to, instead of “link/”here”), the size of buttons for motorised usability (also on mobile devices), easy-to-understand language, glossaries and lists of abbreviations, and visualisations via images and videos. Further options include:

• Alternative texts to illustrations and visuals are beneficial for people with impaired vision; these have also proved helpful for some neurodiverse users;
• Multiple ways to navigate, for example not just one way of swiping on the tablet, but voice control, if necessary, helps users with motoric limitations;
• Subtitles in videos (especially in foreign languages), and adjustable speed of audio or video also improve the accessibility of content;
• For content that is used over a long period of time, it can also be useful to offer it as sign language videos;
• Tools such as Immersive Reader can be very helpful for learners with dyslexia and dysgraphia. These hide distracting pop-ups and buttons and only show what is necessary to read the text;
• Read Aloud is another tool that allows you to listen to web pages, there are grammar tools that allow you to highlight all the nouns, all the verbs etc.

Another means is to offer multimodal support, as we outlined earlier, is by giving students verbal text on the water cycle and also illustrating, or letting them build, the water cycle with building blocks. It is paramount that teachers are aware how their learners benefit from these considerations.

Selection of media

Many points need to be considered when selecting media for the classroom:

• Multimedia and multimodal texts are typically beneficial because they combine different modes and codes to transport information. It is important, though, that these remain accessible for learners who cannot use all modes and codes included (e.g., by providing subtitling or picture descriptions);
• When we think of a picturebook, for example, we can read the verbal text but also look at the pictures and read the visual text. Learners can refer to the mode that is more accessible to them to understand the story. But then there are picturebooks in which both modes contradict each other, and these are then not as useful because learners who read the visual text get different information than those who read the verbal text (cf. Nikolajeva & Scott, 2000);
• In general, however, it is important that educators vary the modes and codes they bring into classrooms and offer visual, audio, audiovisual, and also kinaesthetic representations of content to allow everyone to benefit;
• Also a combination is important: audiovisual material connected with written text, using other forms than oral and written methods of explanation, watching videos instead of reading a text, listening to music, and again, carrying out multimedia exercises.

(If you would want to know more about the use of accessible media and materials in the classroom, please consult the chapter, Accessibility Media and Materials.

The Role of parents and guardians as related to media

The homes our learners come from are just as diverse as the learners themselves. We need to be aware that learners are influenced by what they experience at home, or read/listen through the media. Home experiences as related to media should be taken into account when considering the compatibility with the situation that learners may experience at school. A media-rich home environment has been shown to enhance learning. A study by Bonanati and Buhl (2022) shows that different aspects of the home learning environment concerning digital media influence the efficacy of the child’s ICT experience. Aspects such as the positive attitudes of parents toward media and activities such as shared internet searches, for example, contribute positively to the child’s efficacy. Consider the converse for children where there may be a lack of positive media experiences in the home learning environment and how they may struggle at school when these materials are unfamiliar to them. This brings us to the digital divide and how we can go about bridging the gap.

Let’s discuss the issues surrounding the use of “acceptable/unacceptable” media. An example is given of a parent who bought Harry Potter books which everyone in the house could read including their 6th-grade child. When the child went to school on Readathon Day dressed as Harry Potter with one of the books to be discussed in the classroom, he was told by his teacher that this book was unacceptable as wizards and magic was unchristian-like and that the school was a Christian school. After determining that the teacher had not read any Harry Potter books, the parent asked the teacher to read one to see if she still harboured the same opinion. This may be an extreme (but true) example and most times it is the teacher who is in the position of challenging parents to broaden their child’s horizons beyond what parents may feel comfortable with, and not the other way around. Thus, it is the responsibility of parents, guardians and teachers alike to minimise the tension between home and school and to do so in amicable ways for the sake of the learner. Analogue or digital media as one such aspect is no exception.

One means of avoiding this would be to invite caretakers to be on board by being transparent regarding media, methods, content and teaching objectives that are pursued in the classroom. Where needed, workshops can be arranged that include guidelines on how parents and guardians can support their children at home. In their study, Osorio-Saez and colleagues (2021) found that two things can positively impact parents’ involvement in the learning process of their children. Firstly, by schools providing or suggesting well-structured media tools and secondly, when parents see that other people around them are on board (”group norm”). On the other hand, if parents find the tools used to be too challenging, they are more likely to withdraw their engagement.

Teachers should also encourage parents and guardians who have the skills to use media in innovative ways to volunteer to work with the class or the school on special projects. Why not invite tech savvy parents or guardians as experts to conduct teacher development workshops? This may enhance the view and opinion critical parents may have regarding learning through innovative media.

Potential and limitations of (digital) media in inclusive settings

Despite the multitude of options, we should also be aware of certain challenges that are involved in using specific media and material. As teachers, we should not use technology for its own sake, but rather explore the advantages of our teaching objectives? A specific piece of technology can be of great benefit for some learners, but not for all. To some, the light from screens can already be a distracting issue, for others pop-ups and the many buttons one finds on a webpage can be distracting. Here, we can make use of adaptable settings that technology provides. Immersive Reader, for instance, allows you to hide pop-ups and buttons, and limit web pages to only show what is necessary to understand a text. This can be very helpful for students with dyslexia. Read Aloud is a tool that automatically reads out written text and can support students in their own reading processing. Grammar tools allow you to highlight all the nouns or verbs in a text which can make it easier for readers to navigate and understand a text. So, next to the multimodality that modern technology provides, such forms of manipulating resources or adapting them to individual needs can be very beneficial.

We should also keep in mind that learning is usually considered to be an interactive process.  We should try to implement collaborative and cooperative settings and invite learners to solve tasks by communicating, discussing, and engaging with one another and the content. Even so, when we think of inclusive classrooms, we may need to relativise this assumption. There are some students for whom interacting with others is actually a huge challenge. They may have to use so much energy into managing and navigating these interactive settings that it is then lacking for actually solving a task. As emphasised above, choice can be a solution here. Instead of having all students work in the same setting, teachers can leave this open and suggest to students to work by themselves, in a pair or small group. Simultaneously, we indicated that we should not limit learners to their needs but also encourage them to try something new and move a little outside of their comfort zone. So here, think-pair-share can be a good idea because it allows learners to first think for themselves and prepare the pairing and sharing not only content-wise but also regarding the coming social interaction.

Finally, although this may have changed with the experience of distance teaching and learning, dealing with technology can be a challenge as well. We certainly need to ensure that everyone involved in teaching and learning, the teachers, learners, and also parents and guardians, are familiar with using the media and materials that are introduced in educational settings. Having a rough idea of how media works and its educational potential, benefits both teachers and learners. This may not necessarily be at the level of knowledge regarding the cable connections of boards and chips, but being up to date regarding apps, programmes, and software can be useful, particularly in terms of inclusive classrooms. When looking for apps, for example, we may still have some kind of average student in mind, but there are numerous programmes that specifically cater for inclusive settings as well. This can be compared with selecting literature, for instance, about ten years ago, very few teachers may have considered diversity in the selection of the literature they bring into classrooms. Now, however, with the growing public presence and awareness of diversity, literature that addresses diversity has moved front and centre. This awareness should be extended to the affordances of technology as well.

Recent and upcoming AI tools can also help pupils on an individual level to overcome barriers to learning and support personalised learning processes. They also offer potential for use in the classroom, for example by supporting creative media productions and presentations. For teachers, AI tools facilitate school diagnostics and lesson organisation. At a societal level, AI can contribute to media literacy and participation by teaching pupils how to deal with the risks and challenges of technology.

Local contexts

Literature

About the authors

name: Dr. Pamela February

Dr Pamela J. February is a senior lecturer in the Department of Early Childhood Education and Care in the School of Education at the University of Namibia. Her areas of interest and expertise include inclusive education practices; early childhood education and care; deaf education; how learners/students learn and how we should assess them; reading acquisition and fluency; vocabulary acquisition; mathematics education and the use of technology to enhance inclusive learning. In addition, she has written articles and book chapters and supervised postgraduate students in these areas.

name: Grit Alter

Grit Alter is a Professor of Teaching English as a Foreign Language at the University College of Teacher Education in Innsbruck, Austria. Her research focuses on using picturebooks in English language teaching, diversity education, teaching methodology and digital literacy in the primary English classroom as well as critical pedagogy. She is currently involved in research projects on critical textbook studies, teaching in Canada and the development of school quality.

name: Jules Buendgens-Kosten

Dr. Jules Buendgens-Kosten is a researcher and teacher educator at Goethe University Frankfurt. Their research interests encompass computer-assisted language learning and inclusive education.

name: Frank J. Müller

institution: University of Bremen

Prof. Dr. Frank J. Müller is a professor for “Inclusive Education for Learning and Intellectual Development Impairments in Secondary Schools” at the University of Bremen following his work as a special ed teacher at the Grünauer Gemeinschaftsschule in Berlin.

He works on support structures for teachers in heterogeneous learning groups through inclusive Open Educational Resources (OER), research-based study programs to make (the history of) inclusive education accessible to future generations, and questions of including more dimensions of diversity.

name: Alessio Di Paolo

Alessio Di Paolo is a PhD candidate in “Didactics, Special Pedagogy, and Technology for Inclusive Education” at the University of Salerno. His research interests focus on the inclusive potential of music in teaching-learning processes and the educational aspects it can have in formal and informal contexts, all following the theoretical framework of simplexity.