Marginalised Students in Classrooms

Introduction to Topic

This chapter considers the marginalisation of students within classroom settings. We will explore what is meant by marginalisation, how marginalisation occurs within the context of the classroom and the reasons for this. Lastly, you will be presented with a range of suggestions for possible strategies and approaches that you could apply in your own classroom. After reading this chapter, we hope that you will be more aware of how students can be marginalised and understand the steps you can take to tackle marginalisation.

Key aspects

What does marginalisation mean?

Theorists agree that there is no “official” definition of marginalisation (Messiou, 2006), although there is substantial discourse on the topic. Marginalisation refers to the process through which individuals or groups are pushed to the edges of society, where they have limited social, economic, or political power. Importantly, as Mowat (2015:457) discusses in Towards a new conceptualisation of marginalisation we need to “recognise that marginalisation is more than a state: it encompasses feelings about that state”. This often results in restricted access to resources, opportunities, and rights that are readily available to more dominant groups.

In the context of education, marginalisation refers to the unequal, preferential, or biased allocation of access to learning opportunities, facilities, and resources (Messiou, 2006). This marginalisation is influenced by factors such as geographical location, gender, socio-economic status, or personal circumstances (Messiou, 2006).

Messiou (2012) argues that marginalisation is not a monolithic concept, but rather has multiple conceptualisations, that can be viewed across four distinct interpretations, as outlined in Table 1 below. A crucial element of Messiou’s analysis is the differentiation between the experience of marginalisation, as perceived by the individual or others, and its recognition, whether by the individual themselves or by others. This distinction highlights the subjective nature of marginalisation. Consequently, an important question arises: if an individual does not recognise their life as marginalised and therefore does not experience it as such, on what basis can others deem them to be marginalised? This question carries significant implications for public policy.

Table 1: Messiou’s conceptualisations of marginalisation

Marginalisation can be viewed through the lens of the ‘social capital’ theory. Marginalised or more disadvantaged groups are seen to lack the social capital which more dominant groups use to promote social mobility and economic benefits? The concept of ‘cultural capital’ is obtained through learning and social connections, hence any barriers to learning should be viewed through the lens of social and cultural capital (Bourdieu, 1972). There are possible links to ‘habitus’which Bourdieu (1972: 86) defined as “a subjective but not individual system of internalised structure, schemes of perception, conception and action common to all members of the same group or class”. One of the key principles is to understand the implications of the concept of ‘capital’. Capital can buy you a higher position in society and build key social networks? and can determine your role in the social world.

The OECD report (2014) Equity, Excellence and Inclusiveness in Education states: “The challenge we face is how to ensure our education systems give every child the quality learning experiences they need to develop and realise their individual potential, and to do so in ways that value who they are, their language, identity, and culture. How do we harness diversity, create fairness, and ensure our learning environments engage and achieve the best outcomes for all individuals, not just a few?” (Schleicher, 2014: 3). How do we address the tension (or imbalances) between creating an inclusive learning environment and empowering marginalised students?

Mowat (2015) explores the subtle ways in which marginalisation can occur. For example, when a child is excluded from participating in a reward system, such as “Golden Time,” due to their misbehaviour, the psychological trauma resulting from such actions would require immediate address to support the healing of marginalised children. Interestingly, Mowat highlights an often-overlooked form of marginalisation, involving children who may have abundant access to material wealth, but lack the emotional warmth and love commonly found in other family settings. This absence can lead to attachment or behavioural issues, as noted by Cooper (2008), and serves as a form of marginalisation for these children. This underscores that marginalisation is not exclusively rooted in lower socio-economic groups.

Who are “marginalised students” and how are they evidenced in the classroom today?

We use the term “marginalised students” to refer to those who experience unfair or inequitable access to learning. Students who differ from the dominant norms of identity may face marginalisation. This group includes students who are neurodiverse, from low-income backgrounds, racial or cultural minorities, those who speak different languages, have physical disabilities, or identify with different sexualities. Marginalised students often receive limited and poorer-quality education compared to their non-marginalised peers.

Poverty can influence not only children’s experiences at school, but also their future aspirations and opportunities. According to Carter-Wall and Whitfield (2012), a significant attainment gap exists in the UK between children living in poverty and those from higher socioeconomic backgrounds. The research indicates that this gap begins to widen at an early age, with disparities becoming apparent by the age of three. Consequently, children from severely impoverished backgrounds are only half as likely to pursue higher education compared to their more affluent peers. Socioeconomic background is a key predictor of students’ learning outcomes. Unsurprisingly, low attainment has long-term impacts on both students’ educational and psychological well-being. Sosu and Ellis (2014) found that children living in poverty face higher levels of marginalisation that have long-term consequences for their future well-being, ultimately reinforcing cycles of deprivation.

A significant issue identified by the Millennium Cohort Study, as discussed by Dickerson and Popli (2012), is that ongoing poverty, rather than short-term poverty, has the most detrimental effect on children’s cognitive development during their early years. bell hooks (1994) discusses how identity plays an important role in the identity politics for oppressed and exploited groups??. This framework allows for a critique of dominant structures, giving their struggle purpose and meaning. Encouraging students to share their personal experiences enriches the learning environment, benefiting both students and teachers, and fostering inclusive learning environments.

Which forms of marginalisation exist?

Marginalisation in the classroom can exist in a number of ways, and some are more explicit than others. Some of the more obvious forms of marginalisation can include Othering  , which includes microaggressions, isolation, racism, and discrimination of students. The framework of Intersectionality also explores the combined factors, or parts of a students’ identity, that can contribute to marginalisation. Intersectionality, as a tool, represents an inclusive method of viewing culture and the dynamics of power in a way that recognises the complexity of discrimination and oppression which affects individuals. As our cultures are increasingly diverse, it is important to consider different social identities, as well as the intersecting parts of an individual’s identity, and how these can contribute to greater inequality. This is especially important if we are actively working towards fairness and justice. Intersectionality also increases awareness of how an individual’s own privilege can influence their experiences of the world and create empathy for the situation of others. In the classroom a student may be marginalised due to a combination of their gender, ethnic background, and disability. This type of student could then experience a higher level of discrimination due to the combination of different aspects of their identity.

Other subtle forms of marginalisation exist, such as micro exclusion. While less obvious as other types of exclusion, such as segregation of students or discrimination of ethnic groups, it can also have a significant effect on a student’s attainment, and also their well-being. An example of micro exclusion could be a student who is an immigrant and who is allowed to attend a class with their peer group but is given material which differs from other students. On the surface, it appears that they are included, however, they are not being given the same access to the curriculum as the other students. Another example could be students who are removed from the classroom for the purposes of more focused work for example, rather than remaining with their classmates and having extra support.

In inclusive school systems, another possible form of marginalisation and micro exclusion occurs on a micro-level, for example on a class level, where marginalisation can occur within the single school for all and yet could be present inside the same context and classroom. Research has shown that these forms of micro exclusion take place where some students work in separate rooms (so-called support rooms or special places in general) or remain in the common classroom but not collaborate or learn with their peers or leaving the class for several amounts of time or staying in the common classroom, but separated from classmates (D’Alessio, 2011; Nes, Demo & Ianes, 2018). When this micro exclusion exists within the school context this reinforces the marginalisation of students. Micro exclusion within inclusive school systems occurs more frequently in upper school grades. This means that, although students are formally enrolled in a mainstream school, there is an overall decrease in classroom participation from lower to upper classes and a congruent increase of time amount spent out of the class (Ianes, Demo & Zambotti, 2013; Wendelborg & Tøssebro, 2011).

One of the most explicit and marginalising experiences is the ‘push and pull out’ phenomenon, which describes situations where a pupil or a group of pupils are removed from the classroom and carry out activities removed from their classmates. Such exclusion can be linked to internal class factors, such as a teacher who cannot manage pupils’ behaviours and sends them out with another teacher, or external factors like a well-equipped space that attracts pupils out of the class (Ianes, 2014). They can also take the form of special classes or units within the school. Research suggests that leaving the classroom can have varying effects in terms of inclusion depending on the context. For example, whether leaving the classroom, or the division into groups, effects the whole class group or only some pupils. Also, the criteria by which the groups are organised and how much choice is shared among all teachers can have varying effects on the whole class group (Buli-Holmberg & Jeyaprathaban, 2016; Nes, Demo & Ianes, 2018). However, the pedagogical meaning of the phenomenon still remains unclear – while in some cases the risk of marginalisation to inclusion is evident, in others, leaving the classroom seems to be able to be interpreted as a phenomenon of an organisational flexibility of pupil groups that conforms to the idea of inclusive education (Bellacicco et al., 2019).

Another aspect to be aware of is what is known as the hidden curriculum (Jackson, 1968). This refers to a range of unspoken or implicit rules that students are expected to follow through the social situation of attending school. In contrast to the formal school curriculum, the hidden curriculum is not explicitly taught yet involves the expectation that these rules will be understood and followed. This also relates to the norms and values of the school, which are expressed via the school culture. According to the psychiatrist, Benson R. Synder (1970), these can have a negative impact upon students, causing anxiety and conflict. The hidden curriculum can inform the way students see themselves, and their abilities, and students can therefore be marginalised due to the demands of the hidden curriculum. Paul Willis in Learning to Labour (1978) found that the hidden curriculum led to resistance and the development of school subcultures. In his study of working class boys in the UK, he discovered that resistance to the norms and values of the school could contribute to poorly paid employment. An inclusive school culture  should promote healthy values and allow for students to have agency in their learning and employment choices.

Another form of marginalisation, often more covert than the previous one, is the school disaffection. This describes circumstances based on the students’ difficulty in perceiving contact between the school and the world outside, as well as in those students who continue to perform the assigned tasks, living the classroom experience with low participation and involvement (Rudduck, Chaplain & Wallace, 1996). Even if they are physically present, they are mentally absent and reluctant towards learning (Collins, 1998).

There are also cases in which school disaffection is visible, with manifestations of a poor sense of belonging, lack of interest, commitment and participation, dislike of teachers, lack of trust in the school, low aspiration, self-esteem and achievement (Keys & Fernandes, 1993; Lenzi, 2004).

In some cases, there are extreme situations where the individuals can no longer tolerate social norms and they exhibit negative emotions towards institutions (Hayton, 2013), which includes destructive behaviours and alienation. This often results in persistent absences or exclusion from class, as the student may want to avoid specific lessons, teachers or tests, or the fear of being bullied (Hargreaves & Reid, 2011; Harrison, 2004; Krawczyk & Horner, 2006; Newburn, Shiner & Young, 2013). Skinner and Belmont (1993) state that disaffected pupils are passive, bored, depressed or angry and rebel with teachers and classmates. According to Klein (1999), the founder of the International Journal on School Disaffection, the causes of disaffection can be different and can range from discrimination and accentuation of differences in students’ abilities, excessive punishment in cases of disciplinary problems, and curricula that do recognise students’ experiences, interests and talents. Other possible causes can be attributed to the family environment: low socio-economic status, single-parent family, migrant background, impoverished parents, disordered home life, family breakdown, lack of family support, negative parental attitudes towards school and education, (Lenzi, 2004; Riley et al., 2002).

All these negative experiences could lead students to be part of this drop-out phenomena as a “virtual drop-out” (Kumar, Gheen & Kaplan, 2002), which is another visible form of marginalisation, even if it derives from various causes: socio-cultural (family cultural poverty), school-related (in school orientation and teacher-pupil relationships) and personal (negative experiences of the subjects and refusal behaviour towards school) (Bertolini, 1996).

Who is responsible for marginalised students?

We believe that all those connected to, or working in education, have a responsibility for tackling marginalisation and promoting an inclusive school. This will benefit everyone, by providing a democratic education which enables equity, and promotes social justice. It is crucial therefore that all school staff act as role models for students, and recognise the value of inclusive work, and the relevant opportunities and potential that exists in different contexts. For example, the school leadership  can implement a school wide policy to establish and set the tone for an inclusive school culture. In practice this means actively nurturing a safe space for students to be themselves, providing the necessary resources, (such as support staff and training for teachers), to promote inclusivity across the whole school.

However, a top down approach is not enough, and all members of the school community must take responsibility by reflecting on how best they can support students. At the classroom level, teachers can take responsibility by being mindful and aware of classroom dynamics, by using inclusive language, and by being open-minded to applying inclusive pedagogy. Teachers need to examine the dynamics of their classrooms, and the diverse identities that make up the learning environment. Although teachers often have good intentions, they should also be aware of the influence of unconscious bias, and reflect upon their views, position, and context in the classroom (for more information on these aspects see the chapters about anti-bias education  and teacher habitus ).

With guidance from school staff, classmates can be encouraged to include other students, or students themselves can take responsibility for their own situation, by being conscious of their peers?, and reflect on how they engage in their own learning journey. Students should feel empowered, safe, and able to voice their opinions and concerns.

In the wider community, we can extend the circle of support  by involving parents and other members of the community. This method assists those from marginalised groups to build on their existing circle of support or to build a new one. When a circle of support is formed around an individual who might otherwise feel excluded, it can shift its focus to empowering that person. This approach is particularly effective when supporting individuals from marginalised groups and can empower them by providing a community that helps them achieve their goals and build meaningful relationships.

How can educators create inclusive learning environments that validate the identities and experiences of marginalised students?

Creating inclusive learning environments for marginalised students involves recognising and valuing their diverse identities and experiences. Educators should focus on integrating diverse perspectives into the curriculum and fostering an atmosphere of mutual respect and support. It is important to create a safe space where all students feel comfortable expressing themselves and where their backgrounds are acknowledged and respected. Building strong, supportive relationships with students and involving families and communities in the educational process can enhance this sense of belonging (for more information on these aspects see the chapters about inclusive learning environments  and collaboration with parents ). Additionally, ensuring that teaching practices and materials reflect and celebrate diversity helps all students feel seen and valued. Finally, continuous professional development for educators on issues of diversity, equity, and inclusion is crucial to maintain an environment that supports the academic and social success of all students.

A positive school culture, and classroom culture, recognises the value that all students have in the learning environment. This involves the acknowledgement of diversity, and a celebration of a variety of different identities that make up the student body. In the classroom, this could include collaborative work between students and using a variety of materials that represent the different identities that are present in the classroom (for more information see chapter about inclusive school culture ).

Research suggests that marginalisation can have enduring effects, leading to detrimental impacts on mental health, including depression and anxiety, which may further exacerbate marginalisation within broader communities. Prince and Hadwin (2013) emphasise the importance of fostering positive relationships between students and teachers, particularly as these relationships can promote resilience among marginalised students. Additionally, a supportive and caring school environment plays a crucial role in mitigating the effects of marginalisation.

How can curriculum content and teaching methodologies be adapted to reflect diverse perspectives and histories, empowering marginalised students to see themselves positively reflected in their education?

Recent educational reforms across the globe reflect a growing commitment to decolonising the curriculum and adapting teaching methodologies to include diverse perspectives – a notable example being the UK’s ongoing initiative to decolonise the curriculum (DcT). Wales is at the forefront of this movement with its Anti-Racism Wales Action Plan (ARWAP), which aims to dismantle systemic and institutional racism by 2030 (Welsh Government, 2022). This initiative acknowledges that Global Majority communities, including Black, Asian, and Minority Ethnic groups, face ongoing challenges of racism, race inequality, and colourism (Welsh Government, 2022). Addressing such issues requires not only changes to the curriculum, but also an adaptation of teaching practices.

In the context of decolonising education, Chetty’s (2022) contribution to Decolonising Curriculum in Education: Continuing Proclamations and Provocations underscores the importance of self-reflexivity within White power structures as a necessary step towards dismantling these hierarchies. Chetty highlights the need to examine the power dynamics and advocates for a commitment to change at an institutional level (Race et al., 2022). Similarly, in the U.S., the Ithaca school district has developed an anti-marginalisation curriculum that includes topics such as ‘pronouns, flags, and feeling safe’, and encourages students to challenge their own assumptions about identity, diversity, and power through critical thinking and collaboration (Mansfield, 2022).

Furthermore, Hooley’s (2002) model of “two-way enquiry learning” (see Table 2 below) provides an example of how educational systems can integrate diverse knowledge systems. He explains how Australia adapted its educational practices by incorporating Indigenous and Western knowledge systems, a practice that could be applied to non-Indigenous educational settings globally. This approach allows both Indigenous and Western ways of knowing to coexist, promoting mutual respect without placing one above the other. Learning, in this model, is derived from community and social practices, requiring reflection on significant experiences, with a particular emphasis on environmental learning (Hooley, 2002).

Table 2. Neil Hooley’s seven dimensions of two-way learning

This model aligns with the necessity of adapting curriculum content to reflect diverse perspectives. Incorporating materials that highlight the contributions and experiences of different cultural, ethnic, and social groups ensures a more inclusive educational environment. These adaptations are crucial for enabling marginalised students to see themselves reflected positively in their education (Welsh Government, 2022). In practice, educators can integrate literature from marginalised communities, present historical events from multiple perspectives, and engage students in discussions on contemporary issues relating to diversity and equity (Mansfield, 2022).

Equally important is the adaptation of teaching methodologies to reflect diverse perspectives. Inclusive pedagogies, such as collaborative learning and inquiry-based methods, allow students to explore and share their own experiences, fostering a more inclusive classroom environment (Hooley, 2002). This also includes the incorporation of multimedia resources and guest speakers from diverse backgrounds to enrich the learning experience. Mansfield (2022) highlights that these inclusive approaches not only challenge the exclusion of Global Majority students, but also build a foundation for future citizens to engage with a globalised vision. Wright Edelman’s famous quote, “It’s hard to be what you can’t see” (Mansfield, 2022), underscores the need for visible role models and the importance of diverse representation in education.

Importantly, these adaptations should not be seen as merely compensating for past exclusions, but rather as a forward-thinking approach that recognises the evolving nature of education. This is evident in the practice of two-way enquiry learning, which reinforces the value of Indigenous knowledge within the broader context of human learning. By positioning Indigenous learning on equal footing with non-Indigenous learning, this approach fosters the development of inclusive curricula that are reflective of diverse cultural perspectives (Hooley, 2002).

The inclusion of diverse perspectives and histories, in both curriculum content and teaching methodologies, is essential for empowering marginalised students. By reflecting a broad range of experiences and knowledge systems, educational institutions can create a more inclusive and equitable learning environment that benefits all students (Hooley, 2002; Mansfield, 2022; Race et al., 2022; Welsh Government, 2022).

What existing strategies and approaches can be used as examples of facilitators and benefits to help and support marginalised students, address systemic barriers, and prevent marginalisation in classrooms?

Studies indicate that when students feel a sense of belonging, they tend to achieve higher levels of academic success and experience improved well-being . However, marginalisation can undermine this sense of belonging, thereby negatively affecting students’ overall educational experiences and outcomes.

Inclusive education aims to tackle students’ diversities in order to minimise exclusion, marginalisation and inequalities, and guarantee quality education for all. For marginalised students, feeling a sense of belonging in educational spaces means experiencing acceptance, value, and inclusion within the academic community, despite the systemic barriers they face. If a student does not feel that they belong to the school community, they may experience a form of social pain which includes feelings of rejection, and this can affect brain activity that is very similar to that which is produced by real physical pain (Eisenberg, Lieberman & Williams, 2003). This may lead to avoidant behaviour and isolation (MacDonald & Leary, 2005) and have serious consequences. For example, feelings of isolation are a common characteristic of religious fundamentalism as well as supporters of radical right-wing political parties (Doosje et al., 2016).

According to Booth and Ainscow in the Index for Inclusion (2011), inclusive education involves full participation, and high quality learning, for all learners. This broad definition focuses on diversity and inclusion of all learners, and not on specific groups. Furthermore, it does not view inclusion as the simple placement in a mainstream setting but instead considers co-existence as the initial starting point, followed by involvement, sharing and quality of learning processes. The goal of inclusive education also aligns with global initiatives, such as the UN 2030 Agenda’s Goals 4 and 10 (UNESCO, 2015), which seeks to ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all, thereby tackling all forms of exclusion, marginalisation, and inequalities.

Mowat (2015) explores the subtle ways in which marginalisation can occur, which may not be immediately apparent. An example provided is when a child is excluded from participating in a reward system, such as “Golden Time,” due to their behaviour not meeting a teacher’s expectations. The psychological trauma resulting from such actions would require immediate address to support the healing of marginalised children. Interestingly, Mowat highlights an often-overlooked form of marginalisation, involving children who may have abundant access to material wealth but lack emotional warmth and love, which is commonly found in other family settings. This absence can lead to attachment or behavioural issues, as noted by Cooper (2008), and serves as a form of marginalisation for these children. This underscores that marginalisation is not exclusively rooted in lower socio-economic groups.

Mowat (2015) also investigates the role of schools in the marginalisation process, highlighting the paradox that, while education is often perceived as a pathway out of marginalisation, schools themselves can inadvertently act as agents of exclusion. This occurs through the implementation of curricula that fail to address the diverse needs of students, and through inflexible systems and structures that do not account for the discrepancies between behavioural expectations and students’ capacities to meet them. Such conditions can create environments where exclusion becomes more likely (Munn & Lloyd, 2005). Additionally, the emphasis on a ‘standards agenda’, which inherently produces “winners and losers”, can further contribute to the marginalisation of students (Razer et al., 2013).

Peim, as cited in Bennett and McDougall (2013: 34), reinforces this notion by stating: “The agents of education will tell students not only what they need to know, but what they need to do and to be. Students will be educated above all in the norms of conduct befitting their social destiny”. This suggests that education systems often impose norms that may not align with the diverse needs of all students, leading to marginalisation.

To address this, several strategies have been proposed that effectively combat marginalisation in the classroom. Culturally responsive teaching, which integrates students’ cultural backgrounds into both curriculum and pedagogy, is one such strategy. It validates the identities of marginalised students, enhancing their engagement and academic performance by making them feel acknowledged and respected, which in turn boosts their motivation and participation. Restorative practices, focusing on community-building rather than punitive measures, also play a crucial role. They help create a positive classroom climate, reduce the need for suspensions and expulsions, and support students’ social-emotional development, which is especially beneficial for those who may feel marginalised.

Addressing systemic barriers within education also involves implicit bias training and recruiting diverse staff to mitigate biases and ensure equitable resource allocation. Differentiated instruction, mentorship programs, and support services like counselling and tutoring are essential in accommodating diverse learning needs. Anti-bullying policies, inclusive classroom practices, and cultural competence training further contribute to creating a supportive environment, fostering a more equitable and inclusive educational system.

Lloyd (2008) critiques efforts to promote inclusion through the removal of learning barriers, suggesting that these efforts often perpetuate deficit models of students within an exclusive curriculum where success is narrowly defined by norm-referenced standards. Lloyd argues that “members of the excluded groups can join the game if they submit to the rules and demonstrate that they can play the game at a standard which is acceptable” (Lloyd, 2008: 234). In such exclusive educational environments, both teachers and students can experience marginalisation, often reinforcing each other’s negative experiences (Razer et al., 2013).

Which other strategies and approaches can help and support marginalised students, address systemic barriers, and prevent marginalisation in classrooms?

Teacher education, and continuous professional development, is a vital component towards combating marginalisation. Teachers with insufficient training might not be aware of the different needs that can exist simultaneously in the classroom, and most importantly how to address them. Teachers should feel supported, empowered, and have agency to work in a manner that confronts marginalisation. Investing in regular training for teachers and school support staff is crucial to targeting marginalisation. While we recognise the importance, and influence of government policy, teachers should feel that they can challenge those aspects of the classroom setting that may cause marginalisation (for more information on these aspects see the chapters about continuous professional development  and teacher agency ).

**Certainly, teacher collaboration plays an important role in general, even more if they can work through the co-teaching method with its different forms. It is a practice where two or more teachers (class and/or support teachers) plan, teach and assess together for a group of students. According to Friend and Cook (2007), there are six kinds of models:

1. One teach, one observe; where one teacher conducts the lesson, while the other simply observes students’ learning processes and collects different kinds of data which have been determined in advance.
2. One teach, one assist; where one teacher teaches a full group lesson, while the other teacher roams and helps individual students, often providing additional support for learning or behaviour management.
3. Parallel teaching, where the team splits the class into two groups and each teacher teaches the same information at the same time to a smaller group.
4. Alternative teaching, where one teacher instructs most of the class and the other teacher teaches an alternate or modified version of the lesson to a smaller group of students
5. Station teaching, where the class is divided into three or more groups and students rotate through the stations, while teachers teach the same material in different ways to each group.
6. Team teaching, where both teachers are in the room at the same time but take turns teaching the whole class, like co-presenters. With these models, it is possible to reduce contextual barriers, improving the benefits for students (for more information about the co-teaching method see the chapter “Teamwork in the classroom” ).

Other possible strategies and approaches to address systemic barriers and prevent marginalisation are the Universal Design for Learning (UDL) and open learning. With the UDL it is possible to recognise the individual differences and to pay attention to the context in terms of barriers and benefits where contents are represented in different formats, each individual can have more ways of action and expression, and teachers can motivate and engage students in multiple forms (for more information see the specific UDL chapter ).

Open learning is a student-centred approach with more freedom of choice, based on different degrees of openness (Demo, 2016).

1. On the first level, an openness of organisation would allow pupils to decide where, when and with whom they are learning.
2. On the second level, the openness is methodological and the emphasis is on how to learn something.
3. A third openness level is related to learning goals and contents, so what the students would like to learn.
4. The last level works on socialisation, relationships and rules, namely on the class community. With this kind of approach, it is possible to include everyone, creating a context where each student could perceive to be included.

To reduce marginalisation in the classroom and enhance inclusivity in educational settings, several strategies can be applied. Implementing assigned mentors or key individuals to support each student, akin to a key person approach, can be highly effective. Additionally, peer buddy programs that foster peer-to-peer assistance and relationship-building should be put into practice. Developing an inclusive school culture, where diversity is celebrated, is essential to ensure all students feel a sense of belonging.

Creative pedagogical approaches, such as “coming out pedagogy,” can help create safe spaces for students to express their identities and experiences. Furthermore, applying an intersectional lens to teaching and school policies ensures that the overlapping identities and experiences of students are acknowledged, allowing for tailored support to address their unique challenges.

In the beginning of this chapter  an example case  was given  of  a school in Germany in which marginalisation had occurred using the lived experience of  a student. This chapter has allowed us to explore the concept of marginalisation in more detail, firstly by considering what marginalisation is, how and why it can happen, exploring types of marginalisation, and using intersectionality as a tool to understand how  different types of marginalisation can exist simultaneously. Lastly, and perhaps most importantly, we have provided  practical suggestions as to what can be done to tackle marginalisation, and the strategies that educators can apply in the classroom.

Local contexts

Literature

About the authors

name: Silver Cappello

Silver Cappello has accomplished a PhD in General Education, General and Social Pedagogy at the Free University of Bolzano-Bozen (Italy). He is qualified as primary school teacher with a specialisation as support teacher and he has worked as primary school teacher (mainly teaching second language), as assistant for people with disabilities, and as research assistant on different research projects at the Competence Centre for School Inclusion of the Free University of Bolzano-Bozen.

name: Tracy Fletcher

Tracy Fletcher is a teacher in the subject of English, and researcher, originally from the U.K but has been based in Sweden for the last 14 years. She has experience of curriculum planning and management, co-ordinating CPD for teachers, as well as working to support newly arrived immigrant students integrate into a new school system. Her research interests include anti racist education, inclusive education, and student mental health. She is also an activist for autism awareness and trans rights.

name: Nysha Chantel Givans

Nysha Chantel Givans is currently pursuing a Professional Doctorate in Education at the University of Wolverhampton, with a research focus on the educational challenges faced by marginalised communities from lower socio-economic backgrounds. Her work encompasses a range of topics, including navigating the English education system, decolonising education, and addressing Afro hair discrimination. Employing methods such as autoethnography, film analysis, and literary text examination, her doctoral thesis will delve into Shane Meadows’ This Is England to illuminate the educational barriers encountered by working-class individuals and explores the impact of communitarianism on these communities.